Common Law - business Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Customary Law - business - Assignment Example Respondeat predominant and quifacit per alium facit as such are the two rules that vicarious risk depends on. As indicated by respondeat unrivaled, a prevalent is answerable for the demonstrations submitted by his subordinates. Quifacit per alium facit in essence implies that in the event that somebody accomplishes something through another, at that point he does it through himself (Giliker, 2010). The principles that the court applies in choosing if the fault for a convoluted demonstration can be moved from the worker to the business are: Control Test: Was the representative heavily influenced by the business when the convoluted demonstration was submitted? Control is the key trademark that the court will consider. The business must have the control and the capacity to apply authority over the representative. That is the business controls the activities of the employee’s work. He should educate the worker on what to chip away at and how to take a shot at. Control, authority a nd heading are important obligation conditions (Giliker, 2010). Work Test: A business might be at risk to demonstrations of representatives and not self employed entity. That is, representatives have a ‘contract of service’ while a self employed entity will have a â€Å"contract for service’. Course of work: Employer is obligated just if the tort was submitted over the span of the business. That is the fault can be moved from the representative to the business if the convoluted demonstration was approved by the business or the approved demonstration was done in an improper manner (Smith and Thomas, 2007). 3b. Occupier’s risk demonstration of 1957: This demonstration manages the obligation of the occupier to the legal guests. The demonstration regards all guests as a solitary element independent of them being invitees, contractual workers and licensees. It isn't appropriate to illicit guests, for example, trespassers. It forces obligation of care on the oc cupier. As per the demonstration, an occupier is one who has sensible control on the premises and more likely than not had the capacity to dodge or forestall the peril. Basic Duty of Care: An occupier owes a typical obligation of care to every single lawful guest wherein care must be taken by the occupier to guarantee that the guest is sheltered in utilizing the premises for which he was welcomed under every single sensible situation (Harpwood, 2008). Admonitions: Occupiers are not held subject if hurt is caused to a guest in the event that he/she had been cautioned about the threat. The guest under all conditions must have the option to stay away from the risk dependent on admonitions. In any case, aside from alerts additional consideration must be taken if the risk is strange or extraordinary (Harpwood, 2000). Youngsters and expert practicing their obligation: Exceptions are made to kids and people who are practicing an aptitude or exchange. With kids, the occupier must guarantee that youngsters are protected considering the reality they are less cautious than grown-ups. For Example, in Glasgow Corpn v Taylor (1922) a youngster kicked the bucket subsequent to eating harmful berries from a hedge in an open park. The hedge was not fenced and subsequently didn't take care in defending kids. The occupiers were considered dependable (Harpwood, 2000). With people practicing their obligations the occupier can anticipate that the individual should know about unique dangers related with the expertise. For instance, a circuit repairman fixing an electric attachment must know about the threat of managing electrical hardware and must be cautious in managing it. Self employed entities: The occupier can't be held at risk if the threat or mischief is brought about by crafted by a self employed entity

Motivation and Prentice Hall

Basics of Organizational Behavior, 10/e Stephen P. Robbins and Timothy A. Judge Chapter 5 Motivation Concepts Copyright  ©2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Distributing as Prentice Hall 5-1 After considering this part, you ought to have the option to: 1. Depict the three key components of inspiration. 2. Distinguish four early speculations of inspiration and assess their relevance today. 3. Thoroughly analyze objective setting hypothesis and selfefficacy hypothesis. 4. Exhibit how hierarchical equity is a refinement of value hypothesis. 5. Apply the key fundamentals of anticipation hypothesis to propelling workers. . Disclose to what degree inspiration hypotheses are culture bound. Copyright  ©2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Distributing as Prentice Hall 5-2 What Is Motivation? The procedures that represents an individual’s power, bearing, and determination of exertion toward accomplishing a hierarchical objective ? Power †the measure of exertion set forth to meet the objecti ve ? Bearing †endeavors are directed toward authoritative objectives ? Determination †to what extent the exertion is kept up Copyright  ©2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Distributing as Prentice Hall 5-3 Early Theories of Motivation Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory †¢ McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y †¢ Herzberg’s Two-Factor (Motivation-Hygiene) Theory †¢ McClellan’s Theory of Needs (Three Needs Theory) Copyright  ©2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Distributing as Prentice Hall 5-4 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory Self-Actualization Upper Esteem Social Safety Psychological 5-5 Copyright  ©2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Distributing as Prentice Hall Lower Douglas McGregor’s X and Y Theory X Theory Y †¢ Inherent aversion for work and will endeavor to evade it †¢ Must be constrained, controlled or undermined with discipline View function as being as normal as rest or play †¢ Will practice self-heading and discretion whenever focused on targets 5-6 Copyright  ©2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Distributing as Prentice Hall Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory Not Dissatisfied Satisfied Motivation Factors †¢ Quality of management †¢ Pay †¢ Company strategies †¢ Physical working conditions †¢ Relationships †¢ Job security Hygiene Factors †¢ Promotional open doors †¢ Opportunities for self-improvement †¢ Recognition †¢ Responsibility †¢ Achievement Dissatisfied Copyright  ©2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Distributing as Prentice Hall Not Satisfied 5-7 McClelland's Theory of Needs †¢ Need for Achievement (nAch) The drive to exceed expectations †¢ Need for Power (nPow) The need to cause others to carry on in a manner they would not have carried on in any case †¢ Need for Affiliation (nAff) The longing for amicable and close relational connections Copyright  ©2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Distributing as Prentice Hall 5-8 McClelland's High Achievers †¢ High achievers incline toward employments with: ? Moral obligation ? Criticism ? Halfway level of hazard (50/50) †¢ High achievers are not really acceptable directors High nPow and low nAff is identified with administrative achievement Copyright  ©2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Distributing as Prentice Hall 5-9 Contemporary Theories of Motivation †¢ Cognitive Evaluation Theory †¢ Goal-Setting Theory ? The board by Objectives †¢ Self-Efficacy Theory †¢ Equity Theory †¢ Expectancy Theory Co pyright  ©2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Distributing as Prentice Hall 5-10 Cognitive Evaluation Theory †¢ Proposes that the presentation of outward prizes for work (pay) that was beforehand characteristically compensating will in general lessening by and large inspiration Verbal prizes increment inborn inspiration, while unmistakable prizes subvert it Copyright  ©2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Distributing as Prentice Hall 5-11 Goal-Setting Theory †¢ Goals increment execution when the objectives are: ? Explicit ? Troublesome, yet acknowledged by workers ? Joined by input (particularly selfgenerated criticism) †¢ Contingencies in objective setting hypothesis: ? Objective Commitment †open objectives better! ? Errand Characteristics †basic and natural better! ? National Culture †Western culture suits best! Copyright  ©2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Distributing as Prentice Hall 5-12 Management by Objectives (MBO) †¢ Converts by and large hierarchical goals into explicit targets for work units and people †¢ Common fixings: ? ? ? ? Objective particularity Explicit timeframe Performance input Participation in dynamic 5-13 Copyright  ©2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Distributing as Prentice Hall Self-Efficacy or Social Learning Theory Individual’s conviction that the person is equipped for playing out an errand Self-adequacy expanded by: ? Enactive authority †gain experience ? Vicarious demonstrating †see another person carry out the responsibility ? Verbal influence †somebody persuades you that you have what it takes ? Excitement †get stimulated Copyright  ©2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Distributing as Prentice Hall 5-14 Equity Theory †¢ Employees weigh what they put into an occupation circumstance (contribution) against what they get from it (result). †¢ They contrast their information result proportion and the information result proportion of applicable others. My Output My Input Copyright  ©2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Distributing as Prentice Hall Your Output Your Input 5-15 Equity Theory and Reactions to Inequitable Pay Employee responses in contrast with impartially paid workers Employees are: Paid by: Piece Time Will deliver more Produce less yield or yield of less fortunate quality 5-16 Will create Over-Rewarded less, yet higherquality units Produce enormous Undernumber of low Rewarded quality units Copyright  ©2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Distributing as Prentice Hall Equity Theory: Forms of Justice Copyright  ©2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Distributing as Prentice Hall 5-17 Expectancy Theory Three key connections: 1. Exertion Performance: saw likelihood that applying exertion prompts fruitful execution 2. Execution Reward: the conviction that effective presentation prompts wanted result 3. Prizes Personal Goals: the appeal of authoritative result (reward) to the individual Copyright  ©2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Distributing as Prentice Hall 5-18 Global Implications Are inspiration hypotheses culture-bound? ? ? ? ? Most were created for and by the United States Goal-setting and anticipation hypotheses underline objective achievement and levelheaded individual idea Maslow’s Hierarchy may change request McClelland's nAch assumes acknowledgment of a moderate level of hazard worry for execution Equity hypothesis intently attached to American compensation rehearses Hertzberg’s two-factor hypothesis accomplishes appear to work across societies 5-19 ? Copyright  ©2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Distributing as Prentice Hall Implications for Managers †¢ Look past need speculations Goal setting prompts higher efficiency Organizational equity has bolster Expectancy hypothesis is an integral asset, however may not sensible sometimes †¢ Goal-setting, auth oritative equity, and anticipation speculations all give viable proposals to inspiration Copyright  ©2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Distributing as Prentice Hall 5-20 Keep in Mind†¦ †¢ Make objectives explicit and troublesome †¢ Motivation can be expanded by bringing mployee certainty up in their own capacities (self-adequacy) choices, particularly when the result is probably going to be seen contrarily 5-21 †¢ Openly share data on allotment Copyright  ©2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Distributing as Prentice Hall Summary 1. Portrayed the three key components of inspiration. 2. Distinguished four early hypotheses of inspiration and assessed their appropriateness today. 3. Looked into objective setting hypothesis and self-adequacy hypothesis. 4. Exhibited how authoritative equity is a refinement of value hypothesis. 5. Applied the key fundamentals of anticipation hypothesis to propelling workers. 6. Disclosed to what degree inspiration hypotheses are culture bound. Copyright  ©2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Distributing as Prentice Hall 5-22 All rights held. No piece of this distribution might be repeated, put away in a recovery framework, or transmitted, in any structure or using any and all means, electronic, mechanical, copying, recording, or something else, without the earlier composed authorization of the distributer. Imprinted in the United States of America. Copyright  ©2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Distributing as Prentice Hall 5-23

How to Reduce Stress Wit Happiness Research

How to Reduce Stress Wit Happiness Research Happiness Print 15 Surprising Things Happiness Research Uncovered The Happiness Research You Should Know About By Elizabeth Scott, MS twitter Elizabeth Scott, MS, is a wellness coach specializing in stress management and quality of life, and the author of 8 Keys to Stress Management. Learn about our editorial policy Elizabeth Scott, MS Medically reviewed by Medically reviewed by Steven Gans, MD on August 05, 2016 Steven Gans, MD is board-certified in psychiatry and is an active supervisor, teacher, and mentor at Massachusetts General Hospital. Learn about our Medical Review Board Steven Gans, MD Updated on February 11, 2018 Mint Images - Tim Robbins/Mint Images RF/Getty Images More in Self-Improvement Happiness Meditation Stress Management Spirituality Holistic Health Inspiration Brain Health Technology Relationships View All With the relatively new field of positive psychology growing, a wealth of new happiness research helps explain what and how of the emotion. All this new science also gives insight into what makes life worth living, and how to combat stress by promoting its opposite: serenity. Below are some interesting findings in happiness research. While each study alone may not be definitive â€" each study is a small piece of a larger picture, and its always good to have research replicated by more than one researcher â€" these studies on happiness provide useful information on what promotes happiness, health, serenity and meaning in life. Youll also find opportunities to comment and add your own thoughts on the happiness research. Read on, and find tools to build a happier you! If you want even more info, take this quiz to find out if your lifestyle is actually making you happy! 1. Kindness Is Contagious When people see others doing something kind, theyre more likely to do so as well, which can lead to other great benefits for the givers. And just think: if we were all a little more kind, how much less stress would there be in the world? 2. Weekends Really Are Good for Us Workers, even those with interesting, high status jobs, really are happier on the weekend. How might this knowledge help you relieve stress during the week? 3. Winning the Lottery Wont Keep You Happy Thats right, winning the lottery may make you happy in the beginning, but that happiness dissipates pretty quickly. Lots of money doesnt create lasting happiness (or, for that matter, lasting relief of stress). 4. Positive Affirmations Work â€" And Dont Theres a trick to using positive affirmations; they need to fit certain criteria to be effective. Be sure youre not wasting time and energy on repeating positive-sounding phrases to yourself that actually backfire and make you feel more stressed! Read the research on positive affirmations. 5. Happiness Involves Having What You Want... and wanting what you have! Thats right, researchers found that people are happy when they get what they want (not surprisingly) and when they appreciate what they already have. Use this information in your life to promote contentment and relieve stress, read more about this gratitude-happiness research. 6. Botox May Soften Emotions as Well as Wrinkles Researchers found that those who have been injected with Botox to mute expression lines may feel decreased emotional responses as well. This may bring insight into how we can relieve stress, even if were not Botox users. Read on to find out why. 7. Feeling In Control Doesnt Just Make You Happier... it makes you healthier as well! Researchers linked focus of control with more positive health outcomes. Learn more about what this can mean for you. 8. We Really May Eat More Chocolate When Feeling Depressed Researchers found that those who are depressed consume a greater amount of chocolate than those who dont. How can this impact you? Learn more about the research, and the link between  chocolate and depression. 9. Friends and Sleep Are Good for Us Researchers found that getting more sleep and having more social support in your life were both good for your health. Interestingly, they can both help you feel less stressed as well. If you have difficulty sleeping, check out these  stress and sleep resources. 10. Happy People Are Resilient People Those who seed their life with frequent moments of positive emotions increase their resilience against challenges. Its also a great way to relieve stress and enjoy life more. Learn more about happiness, resilience, and the good life. 11. Grateful People Sleep Better at Night Those who journal about the things they appreciate before they go to sleep actually do have better sleep! What kind of gratitude journaling works best? Read more about gratitude and sleep, and find resources for both. 12. Better Posture Translates Into Greater Confidence Researchers found that those who purposely sat up straighter in their chairs tended to have a greater belief in their own abilities. (And as we saw earlier, greater confidence and belief in your ability to have control in your life can relieve stress!) Learn more about posture and self-belief. 13. You Can Talk Yourself Out of Feeling Stressed Thats right â€" simply reading certain words can help you feel more serene and less stressed. Read on to see what they are! 14. Laughter Is the Best Medicine Laughter, or even the anticipation of a good laugh, can actually lower your stress hormones significantly! Looking to get more laughter (and less stress) into your life? Learn about the benefits of laugter. 15. Positive Emotions Can Lead to a  Better and More Satisfying Life Being sure you have a dose of positive emotion every day can do more than make you feel good for a few minutes. Regular positive emotions can carry far-reaching benefits for many areas of your life, so focusing on the positive and enjoying things that get you into a good mood can be especially beneficial. Read more about the far-reaching benefits of positive emotions, and find ways to get more of those good feelings in your life.

The Mystery Of Vampires And True Blood - 2658 Words

Abstract Vampires fill the world of the shadows and superstition with images of fanged beast ready to feast on human blood from the dark. Creatures creeping from the grave while looking for victims to feed on. While the ideas and classical imagining of vampires have changed greatly from the classical folklore stories to the large screen imaging we see today with twilight and True Blood, one thing is certain, Vampires have traveled across continent as well as eons of time and influenced culture. With this paper, the exploration of the connections between the different cultures that have vampire folklore and what those connections are. Vampires: Cultural Connections The actual definition of the word vampire and it origin is still mysterious as the creature it is used to described but one thing is certain that there are debates as to where the word came from. From the earliest mention of the creatures being present in early Mesopotamian texts, to Eastern Europe, the creatures that are revenants or beings that have returned from the dead and that feed off the living. In folklore this creature is prevalent in stories from Eastern Europe as well as lands to the north as well as Africa and Mesoamerica. Early Beginnings In order to explain things around them, early civilizations would often create stories on things that could not be explained. This had been seen in the creation of the world as well as why people die and what happens after. The vampire can reasonably be seen inShow MoreRelatedVampires : More Than A Modern Fantasy1538 Words   |  7 PagesEmily Fischer 5/26/16 AP World History Period 2 Vampires: More Than a Modern Fantasy When you think of vampires, do you think of Twilight, Buffy the Vampire Slayer, or Vampire Diaries? Or, do you think of ancient vampiric legends such as Lamastu, empusai, and even Vlad the Impaler? What if both modern vampire culture and the origins of vampirism were connected, not only by topic, but by relevance? Vampiric myths allow us to understand the history and those involved, as well as to relate to theRead MoreVampires And Its Effects On Society1318 Words   |  6 Pageskids started to believe the stories, and later thing they are true. One of the most famous folklores that had gotten more attention in recent years are vampires. Vampires have changed from scary monster to attractive dead people because of how the media portrays them now a day. Some people are fascinated by this monster so much that some have created cults saying they are vampires too. The thing people have to understand is that vampires have never existed and were just created to explain the unexplainabl eRead MoreVampires Never Die by Guillermo Del Toro and Chuck Hogan: An Analysis1279 Words   |  6 PagesSupernatural Vampires Never Die is the title of the essay written by Guillermo Del Toro and Chuck Hogan, but it is also a statement that is true in multiple ways. Earlier in history people heard tales of them or read books were they encountered vampires, nowadays they will visit you on your TV- screen, in books, magazines, movies and etc.; they are everywhere to be found. First and foremost we all know vampires are immortal, it is a big part of their allure. Second, vampires manage to live onRead MoreVampire Existence1641 Words   |  7 PagesVampire existence Almost each nation has legends about vampires that rummage people at night and drink their blood. In these legends, vampires are brutal, heartless, half-decayed creatures. For example, Slavic mythology has a belief that a vampire won’t get out of grave if you throw some corn inside. The vampire will count corns all night long. But the image of a vampire has changed. Today it is an mysterious sexy superstar that kept its peculiar traits: love of blood, hate for garlic, and fearRead MoreDracula Extension Speech1098 Words   |  5 PagesFrom the ability to change physical form to a blood-thirsty nature society has always been morbidly fascinated with the concept of Dracula. It has not only seduced literature such as Bram Stoker’s Dracula but also infected mainstream music and film industries. Many composers have expanded and appropriated much of the vampire genre such as Francis Ford Coppola’s Dracula and Slayer’s Bloodline. The ideas surrounding vampires ha s been of good versus evil, the nature of religion and immortality. It isRead MoreThe Mystery Of The Vampire Diaries977 Words   |  4 PagesBlood Lust Fact or fiction? For centuries there has been talk but no one has yet to prove that vampires exist. The Vampire Diaries is a series based on novels about supernatural creatures as though it was reality, this series was launched in 2006 by the CW network. This supernatural drama has grasped its viewers and has grown in popularity making it one of the most sought after series. This heart pounding action packed show is now in its seventh season and after losing one of its main charactersRead MoreAnalysis Of Interview With The Vampire And Bram Stokers Dracula2110 Words   |  9 Pagesform is usually present in sexual activity and penetration is an overall theme throughout both films. The penetration that takes place in Interview With The Vampire and Bram Stokers Dracula does not take place from sex, instead, penetration comes from fangs, and yet the tone is extremely sexual in nature. The scene in Interview With The Vampire where Le Stat brings two women back to their home is a gre at example. In the scene, Le Stat bites one woman on the breast and she squeals and moans in ecstasyRead MoreA Note On The s Return May1462 Words   |  6 Pagesgluttony - my self-indulgent Myles-buffet I had feasted on for several days, but I still had not had my fill of him- he was an enigma; a mystery that I had yet to unravel†¦ The question was, did I really want to know the truth about him†¦ he too, had feasted. On one occasion, his teeth pierced my neck and for several minutes, I thought he might drink every ounce of my blood before he stopped. When Boudreaux saw my neck, he paled. â€Å"What have you done!† he exclaimed in a low whisper. â€Å"What do you mean, whatRead MoreDracula Reflection732 Words   |  3 PagesWhen you hear the word Dracula, what words do you associate with him? Dead, scary, vampire? For most, it would be all of the above. However, when speaking about Dracula, no one hardly utter the word man. Dracual depiction drew a fine line of him being both man and monster, but can we really say that he is of man when his able to turn into different creatures? Draculas complex personality and human form will be discussed throughly in this essay, while also touching on the subject of his sexual needsRead MoreAnalysis Of How A Woman Can Get Hurt By Jean Kilbourne1512 Words   |  7 PagesSiering shares her disapproval of the popular novel adored by so many: Twilight. Represented by the iconic red apple held in a women’s palm with a sinister black backdrop, Twilight is a modern fairytale where the prince belongs to a monstrous society of blood-sucking models, and the princess is your average, plai n-Jane highschool girl with a knack for getting into trouble. Siering’s opinion is most basically this: Bella is objectified and downgraded in the Twilight series; a character created solely to

Solar Energy is not a Solution to the American Energy Crisis

Solar Energy is not a Solution to America’s Energy Crisis With the growing cost of fuel for cars and the rolling blackouts of last summer, the need for an alternative, cost-effective, environment friendly energy source is escalating. Many possible solutions have been presented, such as nuclear power, wind power, and hydrogen fuel cells; prevalent among these is solar power. Solar cells directly convert photons from the sun into electricity (Wikipedia). Solar cells that convert both solar and non-solar light are called photovoltaic cells (Wikipedia 2006). They are made of semi conducting materials, most often silicon (Aldous 2006). The simplest photovoltaic cells power watches and calculators while larger, more complex systems can add†¦show more content†¦Boron only has three electrons in the outer tier, so instead of having extra electrons it has holes. These holes are just the absence of electrons so they have a positive charge and can move about similarly to electrons. (Aldous 2006) An electric field forms when N-type and P-type silicon are put in contact. The free electrons on the N side see the holes in the P side and try to fill them in. All the free electrons of the N-type silicon do not how ever fill up all the free holes in the P-type silicon. At the junction between the two sides the electrons and holes mix and form an electric field as a barrier. This causes the electrons to be able to flow from the P side to the N side but not in the other. (Aldous 2006) When light hits the solar cell, the energy frees the electron/hole pairs. Each photon will free one electron and create one hole. When this happens close to the electron field or if a hole and an electron wander into the field’s range of Solar Energy 4 influence, the field sends the electron to the N side and the hole to the P side. (Aldous 2006) If an external current path is provided then electrons flow to their original side (P) doing work on the way. The electron flow provides current and the electrical field creates voltage, and with voltage and current there is power. (Aldous 2006) Is Solar Power EfficientShow MoreRelatedThe Rise Of Solar Stadiums1292 Words   |  6 PagesThe Rise of Solar Stadiums: Assessing the Motives and Environmental Impact Super Bowl XLVIII. February 2nd, 2014. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. As time expires, Mason Crosby kicks a field goal that soars through the uprights and hits . . . a wind turbine? Suddenly, this scenario does not sound so far-fetched: the Philadelphia Eagles have announced their intention to convert Lincoln Financial Field into the â€Å"world’s greenest stadium† (Bauers). As part of the initiative, the Eagles plan to takeRead MoreSolar Power: Energy’s Bright Future? Essay examples573 Words   |  3 PagesLast week, the world’s largest solar power facility opened in California, to the tune of $2.2 billion (Blood Skoloff). The Ivanpah Solar Electric Generating System is the latest in the Obama Administration’s SunShot initiative, a drive towards cleaner American energy. The goal of the initiative is solar energy that costs $0.06 per kilowatt hour (KWh), a yield more efficient than traditional fossil fuels. Critics of solar technology argue the s teep costs as a barrier to entry as well as low-efficiencyRead More Solar Energy Essay1618 Words   |  7 PagesSolar Energy ~Some history, types, and facts~ In this modern fast paced world that we live in, there are many issues that are looked over, energy is one of these. As a world, we are dependant on dwindling fossil fuel supplies and take for granted electricity, oil, and gas. There are four completely renewable sources of energy around us that should be used and developed, they are: wind, growing plants, flowing water, and the sun. These sources of energy are the ones we should be tappingRead MoreAlternative Energy is the Solution to the Fossil Fuel Dilemma1366 Words   |  6 PagesAlternative Energy is the Solution to the Fossil Fuel Dilemma If the United States continues to employ fossil fuels for energy, the nation will ultimately become more dependent upon fuel imports from the troublesome nations of the Middle East, and we will continue to damage our precious environment. Since the United States relies so heavily on fuel from the Middle East, the U.S. is subject to the will of those quarrelsome nations in order to maintain our fuel reserve. A shortage of oil canRead MoreRenewable Energy Is Important For Our Environment1610 Words   |  7 Pagescoal to renewable sources of energy like solar, wind, hydroelectric, and biofuels in an attempt to reduce carbon emissions, which in turn pollute the environment and contribute to adverse climate change. 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TheseRead MoreOur Energy Future1055 Words   |  5 PagesKyle Smyre June 6 2011 Period 2 Mr. Watts Our Energy Future Currently, its clear that there is an immense problem with the prospect of societys energy needs for the future. Such a large dependency on limited fossil fuels are already dampening the worlds economy, and following this path will simply ensure a destitute future. However, changes could be made in todays time to prevent such an event from occurring, but it will require many separate state entities to work together and no longerRead MoreThe Real Estate Crisis Essay1268 Words   |  6 Pagescurrent real estate crisis that America finds itself in is one of the greatest challenges America has ever faced. America’s troubles are further compounded by increasing unemployment of American citizens and environmental problems like global warming. 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Discuss 10 major pieces of legislation, including names, years of passage… Free Essays

Our society at present is composed mostly of aged individuals who needs long term care. Over the last century, the types of illnesses that had affected the American elderly had begun to change. The most common examples in the elderly today include arthritis (46 percent), hypertension (38 percent), hearing impairments and heart conditions (28 percent each), visual and orthopedic impairments (14 percent each), and diabetes (8 percent). We will write a custom essay sample on Discuss 10 major pieces of legislation, including names, years of passage†¦ or any similar topic only for you Order Now About 80 to 85 percent of those over 65 have at least one chronic condition, and a substantial proportion have more than one such condition (Oktay, 1985). The federal government had passed a number of laws that have directly and indirectly affected the elderly population as it relates to their long-term care. These legislations will be discussed in this paper to demonstrate how relevant it is to the care of the elderly. President Lyndon Baines Johnson signed the Housing Act of 1965 into law in 1965, which was a part of the president’s â€Å"Great Society† program (Listokin and Burchell, n. d). The bill created the program that made subsidies available for low- and moderate-income rental units, and it also authorized the subsidy that fostered home ownership by the poor. The housing needs of inner-city areas were to be met by specially targeted subsidies. The best-known subsidy plan was the Model Cities Program (authorized by the 1966 Demonstration Cities Act), which focused on upgrading the physical (housing, public facilities) as well as the social (education, job training) aspects of inner-city areas. It also recognized the needs of older people for non-institutional congregate housing sites, most of which were age related. There are several programs that provide supportive housing to the frail elderly. The Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) administers the Section 202 program, under which subsidies are provided for the building and managing of rental housing for the elderly (Clark, 1996). This legislation offered new services for the elderly to remain in their own homes and be cared for. The Medicare and Medicaid programs were signed into law on July 30, 1965. President Lyndon B. Johnson is pictured at the signing ceremony in Independence, Missouri at the Truman Library (Medicare†¦2006). These are two U. S. government programs that guarantee health insurance for the elderly and the poor, respectively. They were formally enacted in 1965 as Discuss 10 major pieces of legislation, including names, years of passage†¦ Page #2 amendments (Titles XVIII and XIX, respectively) to the Social Security Act (1935) and went into effect in 1966. Medicare is a federal health insurance program with a uniform eligibility and benefit structure throughout the U. S. The program covers most persons entitled to Social Security benefits, persons under age 65 entitled to disability benefits, and some persons with end-stage renal disease (Clark, 1966). Medicare is designed to meet the health care needs of acute diseases rather than long-term care. Medicare benefits are provided under two parts: Part A, Hospital Insurance and Part B, Supplementary Medical Insurance. Although most; Medicare recipients receive benefits under fee-for-service arrangements, approximately 10 percent of Medicare beneficiaries are enrolled in managed care plans. Under current law, Medicare home health benefits under either part are targeted at persons recovering from an acute illness. The beneficiary must be homebound and services must be ordered and reviewed periodically by a physician. Medicaid is a federal-state matching entitlement program providing medical assistance to low-income persons who are aged, blind, disabled, members of families with dependent children, or meet certain other criteria for need. Within federal guidelines, each state designs and administers its own program. There is considerable variation from state to state in persons covered, benefits included, and amounts of payment for services. Medicaid finances home- and community-based care under three coverage options: (a) home health care, (b) personal care, and (c) home- and community-based waiver services. Medicaid is more responsive to the long-term care of the elderly than Medicare especially for those who are poor and disadvantaged. President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Older Americans Act into law on July 14, 1965. In addition to creating the Administration on Aging, it authorized grants to States for community planning and services programs, as well as for research, demonstration and training projects in the field of aging. Later amendments to the Act added grants to Area Agencies on Aging for local needs identification, planning, and funding of services, including but not limited to nutrition programs in the community as well as for those who are homebound; programs which serve Native American elders; services targeted at low-income minority elders; health promotion and disease prevention Discuss 10 major pieces of legislation, including names, years of passage†¦ Page #3 ctivities; in-home services for frail elders, and those services which protect the rights of older persons such as the long term care ombudsman program (http://www. vec. virginia. gov). This policy was an answer to many of the domestic difficulties of the elderly, it gave them supportive services that has been incorporated in the long-term care program of the elderly. The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 (ADEA) protects individuals who are 40 years of age or older from employment discrimination based on age. The ADEAâ €™s protections apply to both employees and job applicants. Under the ADEA, it is unlawful to discriminate against a person because of his/her age with respect to any term, condition, or privilege of employment, including hiring, firing, promotion, layoff, compensation, benefits, job assignments, and training (The U. S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission). The act was signed into law by President Lyndon Johnson on December 15, 1967. Through this policy, the employed elderly were protected from unjust employment practices, in relation to long-term care; it gave the elderly earning power and thus could pay for health insurance that would pay for their health care needs. The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) was signed into law by President Bush on July 26, 1990. The central purpose of this Act is to extend to individuals with disabilities civil rights protections similar to those provided to individuals on the basis of race, sex, national origin, and religion. Based on the concepts of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, the ADA guarantees equal opportunity for individuals with disabilities in employment, public accommodation, transportation, state and local government services, and telecommunications. The ADA is the most significant federal law ensuring the full civil rights of all individuals with disabilities (Wodatch, 1990). This policy gave person’s with disability the opportunity to become functioning individuals in society, however, The policy is really not that relevant to long–term care, wherein people with mild or moderate disabilities are the only ones who can benefit from this policy since those who need institutional care and long-term care cannot become fully functioning members of society. Signed into law by President Nixon in 1972, the Supplemental Security Income (SSI) program replaced a patchwork of state programs for the aged, blind, and disabled. SSI improves the Discuss 10 major pieces of legislation, including names, years of passage†¦ Page #4 quality of life for persons who are elderly or have a disability by providing financial support, incentives to work, and access to medical care (through Medicaid; enrollment in SSI generally brings with it eligibility for Medicaid). These elements of the program have helped make it possible for poor people who are elderly or have disabilities to gain freedom from destitution and institutional care (Sweeney and Fremstad, 2005). The policy makes the costs of long-term care more bearable for the elderly and the poor, it however increases the administration of caring and nursing in the home rather than in institutions. On September 26, 1973, President Nixon signed the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 into law. This is a civil rights law to prohibit discrimination on the basis of disability in programs and activities, public and private that receives federal financial assistance. Section 504 states that â€Å"no qualified individual with a disability in the United States shall be excluded from, denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under† any program or activity that either receives Federal financial assistance or is conducted by any Executive agency or the United States Postal Service (Pfeiffer, 2002). This policy was the first to address the need and rights of persons with disabilities but was consequently met with opposition from the general public as it meant giving equal opportunity to persons with disability. The policy increased the demand for rehabilitative services but at that time was limited. Title XX of the Social Security Amendments of 1974 authorized grants to states for social services. These programs included protective services, homemaker services, transportation services, adult day care services, training for employment, information and referral, nutrition assistance, and health support (Oktay, 1985). The funds were distributed to the states according to the size of the population. States were to define the eligible population and design a package of services (many of which were mandated). While Title XX funds were not earmarked for the elderly, there are a number of services, which are targeted primarily to elderly populations, among them, homemaker services. In FY 1982, the Title XX funds were replaced by the Social Services block grant which allowed the states to choose the programs and services that they want to spend on to alleviate the Discuss 10 major pieces of legislation, including names, years of passage†¦ Page #5 conditions of the needy. However, social services for the elderly who can take care of themselves maybe provided. Most states provide homemaker and chore services as well as adult protective and emergency services for their elderly citizens, in order to prevent or reduce inappropriate institutional care (Clark, 1996). On July 1, 1988, President Bush signed into law H. R. 2470, the Medicare Catastrophic Coverage Act of 1988 (MCCA). This law provided the most significant expansion of the Medicare program since its inception. It also contained numerous technical amendments to the Medicare and Medicaid programs, as well as three new Medicaid provisions. However, the following year, the President signed into law Public Law 101-234 that repealed the major expansions of the Medicare program enacted the previous year (Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services). The act expanded Medicare coverage of inpatient hospital care and will also provide payment for outpatient prescription drugs and home i. v. therapy. For the prescription drug benefit, deductible and coinsurance payments will be phased in, and Medicare will establish payment limits. A per diem fee schedule will be established to pay for the supplies and services used in home i. . therapy. Providers of home therapy must have qualifications specified by the act (Grealy, 1989). The policy increased the demand for training of health-care providers that are home-based. It gave the elderly long-term care in their own homes rather than in hospitals or institutional facilities. It also paved the way for the employment boom of caregivers in the country. On July 26, 1990, President George H. W. Bush signed into law the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) — the world’s first comprehensive civil rights law for people with disabilities. The Act prohibits discrimination against people with disabilities in employment, in public services (Title II), in public accommodations and in telecommunications (U. S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission). The policy enforced guidelines that called for states to review the funding they gave to long-term care. It also emphasized the desegregation of the mentally disabled from the rest of society. The act has brought a decrease of admittance to nursing and institutional facilities, and increased the demand for home-based healthcare services. How to cite Discuss 10 major pieces of legislation, including names, years of passage†¦, Papers

The Role of Ipcc in Climate Change Essay Example

The Role of Ipcc in Climate Change Essay The Project The Role of IPCC in Setting Climate Change Policy This essay will critically evaluate the role of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in setting climate change policy. In order to do this, its latest assessment report (IPCC 2007) will be highlighted. The physical science basis of climate change that IPCC relies on in influencing policy on climate change will be reviewed. IPCCs view of climate change will be shown to be the main stream view of climate change. The essay will also review alternative argument on climate change by other scientists such as Svenmark and Calder (2006). The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is an organization that was established in 1988 by two organizations namely the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) UPI)(IPCC 2008). Its mandate included the assessment of scientific information related to climate change, evaluation of the environmental and socio-economic consequences of climate change and the formulation of realistic response strategies (IPCC, 2007). Based on its mandate, it can be seen that IPCC was to act as the scientific powerhouse to generate evidence based information on climate change that United Nations and other countries and regional bodies will rely on to formulate their climate change policies. We will write a custom essay sample on The Role of Ipcc in Climate Change specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The Role of Ipcc in Climate Change specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The Role of Ipcc in Climate Change specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Since its formation, IPCC has produced assessment reports (AR) of the scientific evidence related to climate change and formulated response strategies on actions the international community need to take in order to minimize the impact of climate change. It produced the first assessment report (AR 1) in 1990, AR 2 in 1995, AR 3 in 2001 and the latest one AR 4 in 2007. The 2007 report (AR 4) was the most comprehensive of its reports. It was produced in four different volumes and each volume was launched separately at different times throughout 2007 at different locations under the banner ‘Climate Change 2007. AR 4 confirms most of the conclusions in its earlier documents including : climate change is due mainly to greenhouse gases notable carbon dioxide which is released into the atmosphere by human activities and responsible for global warming; addressed issues of concern to policy makers in national , regional and multinational agencies; the impact of global warming is real and will continue into the foreseeable future; there is the need for societies to adapt to reduce vulnerability and an analysis of the costs, policies and technology required to minimize the impact of climate change. It claimed that its AR 4 report was produced by 500 lead authors and reviewed by 2000 expert reviewers. There is no doubt that IPCC in its publications since 1990 has profoundly affected climate change policies at all the different levels of government. Smith and Stern (2010) have argued that IPCC provide the science of climate change and the causes and in the process highlights the risks of the phenomenon. It is the information about the risks that enables national governments to formulate policies to manage the risks either unilaterally or multilaterally. There is an international consensus that the challenges posed by climate change is best handled through multilateral agreement because climate change will affect all the countries of the world irrespective of whether or not they contributed to the problem. Hence the United Nation has played a pivotal role in bringing the nations of the world together for discussions on appropriate strategies based on reports by the IPCC. The Kyoto Protocol and United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change UNFCCC can all be traced to the version of the science of climate change by IPCC. In fact the contributions of IPCC have been recognised as highly significant by the Nobel Prize Committee which named it as joint recipient of the prestigious Nobel Peace Prize in 2007. It was a seal of approval for its vital role in influencing the world climate change agenda. One of main highlights of The Kyoto protocol is the requirement for industrialised nations to reduce their greenhouse gas emission as way to mitigate the impact of climate change. This requirement can be traced to IPCC because mitigation strategy is a major strategy advocated by its Working Group 111 (mitigation of climate change). Although many of the nations of the world have signed the protocol, some industrialised nations notably the United States under President George Bush Jnr refused to sign the protocol on the grounds that the protocol did not commit significant polluters such as China and India to compulsory emission limits (Singer 2007). Both China and India have rejected any attempt to limit their emission of greenhouse gases. Singer (2007) has suggested three reasons why both countries are adamant to any mandatory limits. First, these emissions of greenhouse gases were caused by the industrialised nations in the first place during the industrial revolution and hence it is their responsibility to sort it out. Secondly even if the pas t history is discounted, at the present rate of greenhouse gas emissions, the industrialised nations still produce these gases per citizen than the rest of the world. For example, the average US resident produces six times more greenhouse gas than the average Chinese resident and about 18 times than the average India resident. Thirdly, the industrialised nations are much richer and hence better placed to bear the cost of adjusting their lifestyle to climate change without serious impact on their citizens. Perhaps in addition to these reasons there is the underlying perceptions in developing countries that limiting their CO2 emissions will slow down their rate of economic development which can impact on their other social and political policies especially with respect to poverty reduction and employment. The industrialised countries are equally apprehensive of the impact of mitigation policy of climate change on their economic growth. The three main areas of human activities identified by IPCC as responsible for greenhouse gas emissions are energy use in industrial production and transportation where fossils fuels are burnt, agriculture and deforestation. As Stern (2006) argued any mitigation policy will require some forms of action on all these three areas. For example, energy reduction programmes will require the design of a package of mixed economic activities geared towards energy efficiency. He argued that better technology will be required such as energy saving technology and fossil fuel alternatives for cars and vehicles to reduce their carbon input. Innovations will be imperative from the governments and private sectors in the development and deployment of relevant technologies to move economic activities towards low carbon economies. For developing countries to be involved in mitigation policies, they will need external financial assistance for the development of new technologies (Stern 2006). Closely aligned with IPCC strategy on mitigation of climate change is the strategy of adaptation to climate change. This is within the remit of IPCC Working Group 11 (climate change impacts, adaptation and vulnerability). IPCC is of the view that although the bulk of greenhouse gases are produced in the industrialised countries, the impact of climate change is and will in the future be felt more in the developing countries (IPCC 2007). Due to their greater vulnerability, developing countries will need to adapt their technology and production processes towards better and cleaner environment. Adaptation policies will also involve diversification of opportunities especially in the areas of agriculture and deforestation. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) at its meeting in Cancun (UNFCCC 2010) agreed to provide developing countries financial assistance to enable them address the problems of adapting their technology and increasing capacities and opportunities so that they can cope with the impact of climate change. The Convention agreed to strengthen the Kyoto’s protocol on clean Development mechanisms to drive major investments and technology into environmentally sound and sustainable emissions reduction projects in developing countries. Towards this end, the Convention agreed to provide $30 billion from industrialised countries developing countries to support climate change actions up to 2012 and the objective to increase this to $100 billion by 2020 (UNFCCC 2010). IPCC has continued to be at the forefront in defining the scientific basis of climate change that informs climate change policies all over the world. In AR 4, IPCC stated that ‘warming of the climate system is unequivocal, as is now evident from observations of increases in global average air and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of snow and ice and rising global average sea level (IPCC –SPM 2007 : 2). It went further to declare that ‘ most of the observed increase in global average temperature since the mid – 20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic GHG concentrations’(IPCC SPM 2007 : 5). This would suggest that it has resolved the dilemma over the cause of global warming because its earlier assessment report in 1990 had expressed that the cause could be anthropogenic (human activity) or due to natural variability of the earth’s temperature. This shift from human activity as the cause of global warming rather than natural variability has dominated the discourse on climate change in the last decade. It seems to be the mainstream view and the scientific basis of much of the strategies it has proposed to tackle the impact of climate change. Stern (2006) has alluded to this mainstream view when he stated that ‘ there is now an overwhelming body of scientific evidence that human activity is causing global warming, with the main sources of greenhouse gases, in order of importance being electricity generation, land use changes (particularly deforestation), agriculture and transportation; the fastest growing sources are transport and electricity’ Stern 2006:1). Another influential source that has supported this mainstream view is the UK based Royal Society. The society has more than 1400 outstanding members from all areas of science, mathematics, engineering and medicine organised in a global scientific network of the highest calibre (The Royal Society 2010). The society’s position seems to endorse the IPCC’s position when it stated that ‘there is strong evidence that changes in greenhouse gas concentrations due to human activity are the dominant cause of the global warming that has taken place over the last half century’( RS 2010 :13). Despite these endorsements of IPCC views on global warming and climate change, there are some criticisms about the organization. The latest assessment report, AR 4 in 2007 was alleged to contain some errors. One of such errors was highlighted by Foley (2010) writing in The Independent newspaper where it was reported that IPCC latest report stated that the Himalayan glaciers would be melted by global warming by 2035 instead of the correct figure 2350. That is a large difference of about 300 years. The IPCC relies on the reports it gets from affiliated research centres such as the Climate Research Unit (CRU) based in East Anglia. The anonymous hacking into the dataset and email of CRU in 2009 in what has been described in the mass media as ‘climategate’ has highlighted some form of manipulation of data by the unit in order to support a particular viewpoint. For example, the raw data used by the CRU in projecting Russian temperature was found to have omitted some data sent to it by some Russian Meteorological stations. Page ( 2009) pointed out that there is an argument by some Russian climate sceptics that if those missing data were included it would have significantly reduce the estimate of Russian temperature. This is a serious error especially when Russia accounts for 12. 5 % of the world’s total landmass and against the backdrop that CRU has always resisted demand for the raw data it uses for its climate change computer modelling (Page 2009). It is doubtful if they had not done the same to other countries in order to strengthen their arguments and position on climate change. There were some other damaging revelations that surfaced in the hacked email released. These have been summarised by Watts ((2009). Firstly, there was the revelation that scientists at the CRU consistently colluded to thwart any Freedom of information requests that would have obliged them to release their raw data and hiding source codes from requests. Secondly, they admitted privately not to use journals that published opposing views and refused to publish such articles in journals that they controlled. Thirdly, it was apparent from their email exchanges that they were privately concerned that there had been no increase in global average temperatures in the last decade and yet they could not explain it because it is contrary to their projections. Data that suggested decrease in temperature were manipulated to hide the decline. Ways were devised to discount warming trends that did not occur in the past when greenhouse gases were increasing. What these revelations suggest is that some of the collaborative institutions that IPCC relies on for scientific evidence for its decisions may actually be feeding it with selective and manipulated data in order to pursue a pre-determined agenda without any regard for opposing views no matter how compelling the arguments. As observed by Calder (2007), there is a tendency for events such as heat waves that supported global warming to make headlines while opposing events like prolonged snow and frost during winter not given the same coverage because it is contrary to the mindset of mainstream views on climate change. Calder (2007) also noted that global air temperatures from America satellites suggest a wobbling or fluctuations between hot and cold with no overall change in temperature since 1999. This levelling pattern he argued is the exact pattern that the rival hypothesis – natural variation of atmospheric temperature by the sun would predict. This antithesis to the greenhouse thesis suggests that the sun is a major driver of climate change than greenhouse gases and that when active it can drive atmospheric temperature up and when lazy down. Hence the earth passes through cycles of hot and cold periods. It would appear that proponents of the climate change due to greenhouse gases produced by human activity are not very enthusiastic about this because the mechanism of how the sun changes the earth’s temperature is not well understood and have categorised sceptics as climate change deniers. Svensmark and Calder (2007) both sceptics have demonstrated experimentally how this can happen. The main postulate of natural variation of weather by the sun is that the degree of cloudiness in the air depends on the number of atomic particles arriving at the solar system from exploding stars. The more they are, the more cloudiness. If the sun’s magnetic field is able to deflect much of the cosmic rays, there will be less cloud in the atmosphere and this will result in global warming. The converse holds. Many journals refused to publish his findings presumably because they were not politically orrect. The Royal Society (2010) while agreeing in broad terms with the position of IPCC, however argued that there are not enough data to understand the mechanisms of cloud formation and its impact on climate change. To complicate this, projections of climate change are sensitive to the way the impact of clouds is represented in computer models of climate change. The society noted that currently ‘individual clouds are represented by more approximate methods. Since there are various ways to make these approximations, the representations can vary in climate models developed at different institutes. The use of these different approximations leads to a range of estimates of climate sensitivity, especially because of differences between models in the response of clouds to climate change’ (Royal Society 2010:14). This would suggest the need for more extensive research on the contributions of natural variations to climate change than is hitherto the case (Coren 2006). Blackman (2009) has noted that in his interview with Hulme, an eminent climatologist and a sceptic of IPCC, did question the almost infallible status given to IPCC in the face of other compelling evidence in favour of alternative theories of the causes of global warming. In the interview, Hulme advocated for a more robust debate on all the possible causes of climate change. It is difficult to understand why a scientific body like IPCC could have made itself so vulnerable to criticisms. Perhaps the clue to the controversies surrounding IPCC may be due to the structural problems within the organization. For a start, IPCC has only a core staff of 10 people. It has thousands of volunteer scientists who contribute to the work of IPCC. They are not paid by IPCC (IPCC 2011). Authors, contributors, reviewers and other experts are selected by IPCC from a list of nominations received from governments and participating organizations. The three Working Groups of IPCC are hosted and financially supported by the Government of the developed country co – chair of the working Group. The plenary session that approves reports and budgets is made up of government representatives from all member countries, agencies and research institutions that probably have some links with governments. This sort of structure makes IPCC to be heavily politicised at the expense of good science. Governments’ vested interest in climate change debate can be interpreted as self serving because IPCC findings give them the perfect excuse to tax individuals for their carbon footprint. Motorists may find themselves targeted by all manner of taxes on the excuse of climate change. So it is in the best interest of the politicians to exert pressure on IPCC even when such pressure has the potential to lead to bad science. There are indications that some of the scientific evidence they rely on are published in carefully selected journals and commissioned reports by some pressure groups without any form of peer review. It is not surprising therefore that they have been criticised for being economical with the truth by making vague and imprecise statements they know will be difficult to refute but nonetheless accord them with ‘high confidence’ status That was the allegation made by the Inter-Academy Council that was set up to investigate errors in the IPCC assessment report 4 (Foley 2010). IPCC as a scientific organization has no laboratory of its own but has to rely on specially designated centres such as the CRU involved in ‘climategate’. In conclusion, the role of IPCC in setting policy on climate change is commendable. It has advocated policies of mitigation and adaptation as strategies to avert the anticipated effects of global warming. It was highlighted that it structure is too tied to national governments and agencies and this is politicising its scientific evidence base. There is the need to have on board sceptics and promote robust debate instead of labelling them as deniers. References Blackman S (2009) Top British Boffin : Time to ditch the climate consensus. Online : www. theregister. co. uk. Accessed on 5/4/2011. Calder N (2007) An experiment that hints we were wrong on climate change. Online : www. timesonline. co. uk. Accessed on 5/4/2011. Foley S (2010) IPCC feels the heat as it is told to get its facts right. Online : www. independent. co. uk/environment/climatechange. Accessed on 3/3/2011. Coren M (2006) The science debate behind climate change. Online: www. articles. cnn. com. Accessed on 10/4/2011. Watts A (2009) Climate ‘Men behaving badly – a short summary for laymen. Online: www. wattsup. com. Accessed on 10/4/2011. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC (2007) Climate Change 2007. Synthesis for Policymakers. Summary for policymakers. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC (2008) Climate Change 2007. Synthesis Report. Geneva : IPCC. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC (2011) structure: how does the IPCC works? Geneva : iPCC. Page L (2009) CRU cherry picked Russian climate data. Online: www. theregister. co. uk. Accessed on 9/4/2011. Singer P (2007) A fair deal on climate change. Online: www. policyinnovations. org/ideas. Accessed on 10/4/2011. Smith L and Stern L (2010). Uncertainty, ambiguity and the risk in forming climate policy. In : Discussion Meeting on Handling uncertainty in science. London: The Royal Society. Stern N (2006) What is the economics of climate change? World Economics. 7 (2): 1-10. Svensmark H and Calder N (2007) The chilling Stars. A new theory of climate change. Cambrdge: Icons Books Ltd. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (2010) United Nations climate change conference in Cancun. Bonn: UNFCCC. The Royal Society (2010) Climate Change: A Summary of the Science. London: TRS. Watts A (2009) Climategate ‘Mem behaving badly’ – a short summary for laymen. Online: www. wattsup. com Accessed on 11/4/2011.